The Comparative Politics Dictionary
Definitions
This page is a constant work in progress. It is dedicated to collecting definitions of key terms in CP. Any emphasis (bolding, italicizing, capitalization, etc) was included in the original text.
A
A
Accountability "is the obligation of elected political leaders to answer for their political decisions when asked by citizen-electors or other constitutional bodies" (Diamond & Morlino, 2005, pg xix)
Agent (Rational) "one who comes to a social situation with preferences over possible social states, beliefs about the world around him, and a capability to employ these data intelligently" (Shepsle, 1989, pg 134)
Agent (Rational) "one who comes to a social situation with preferences over possible social states, beliefs about the world around him, and a capability to employ these data intelligently" (Shepsle, 1989, pg 134)
'As If' Theory "Truly important and significant hypotheses will be found to have 'assumptions' that are wildly inaccurate representations of reality . . . the relevant question to ask about the 'assumptions' of a theory is not whether they are descriptively 'realistic,' for they never are, but whether they are sufficiently good approximations for the purpose in hand. And this question can be answered only by seeing whether the theory works, which means whether it yields sufficiently accurate predictions" (Friedman, 1984, 218).
Authoritarian Regime
Types of Authoritarian Regimes
Military Regimes are when “a group of officers decides who will rule and exercise some influence on policy” (Geddes, 1999, pg 121)
Personalist Regimes are when "access to office and the fruits of office depends much more on the discretion of an individual leader. The leader may be an officer and may have created a party to support himself, but neither the military nor the party exercises independent decision-making power insulated from the whims of the ruler" (Geddes, 1999, pgs 121-122)
Single-Party Regimes are when “access to political office and control over policy are dominated by one party, though other parties may legally exist and compete in elections” (Geddes, 1999, pg 121)
B
C
Causal Mechanisms " as ultimately unobservable physical, social, or psychological processes through which agents with causal capacities operate, but only in specific contexts or conditions, to transfer energy, information, or matter to other entities" (George & Bennett, 2005, pg 137)
Case "an instance of class of events. The term 'class of events' refers here to a phenomenon of scientific interest, such as revolutions, types of governmental regimes, kinds of economic systems, or personality types that the investigator chooses to study with the aim of developing theory (or 'generic knowledge') regarding the causes of similarities of differences among instances (cases) of that class of events". (George & Bennett, 2005, 17-18)
Case Ragin, Charles and Becker, Howard (eds), "What is A Case?., Exploring the Foundation of Social Inquiry, 1992. Conceptual map for answers to "What is a case?
Causal Mechanisms " as ultimately unobservable physical, social, or psychological processes through which agents with causal capacities operate, but only in specific contexts or conditions, to transfer energy, information, or matter to other entities" (George & Bennett, 2005, pg 137)
Case "an instance of class of events. The term 'class of events' refers here to a phenomenon of scientific interest, such as revolutions, types of governmental regimes, kinds of economic systems, or personality types that the investigator chooses to study with the aim of developing theory (or 'generic knowledge') regarding the causes of similarities of differences among instances (cases) of that class of events". (George & Bennett, 2005, 17-18)
Case Ragin, Charles and Becker, Howard (eds), "What is A Case?., Exploring the Foundation of Social Inquiry, 1992. Conceptual map for answers to "What is a case?
Understanding Cases
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Case Conception
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Specific
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General
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As empirical Units
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1. Cases are found
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2. Cases are objects
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As theoretical Constructs
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3. Cases are made
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4. Cases are conventions
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Case-Oriented Researchers are those that "seek to identify the causes of particular outcomes in specific cases. They may find causal patterns that apply broadly, but their primary concern is with causation in the specific cases under analysis" (Mahoney, 2008, pg 2)
Case Study "a well-defined aspect of a historical episode that the investigator selects for analysis, rather than a historical event itself". (George & Bennett, 2005, pg 18).
Cause (probability & likelihood) "a value on a variable that makes an outcome more likely; a cause increases the probability that an outcome will take place" (Mahoney, 2008, pg 4)
Citizenship "This involves both the right to be treated by fellow human beings as equal with respect to the making of collective choices and the obligation of those implementing such choices to be equally accountable and accessible to all members of the polity" (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 7) *emphasis in original
Civic Community "the density of associational life" (Putnam, 1994, pg 106)
Civil Society “all voluntary associations that exist below the level of the state, but above the family” (Berman, 2009, pg37)
Civil Society “the realm of organized social life that is open, voluntary, self-generating, at least partially self-supporting, autonomous from the state, and bound by legal order of set of shared rules …(with the exception of) parochial society: individual and family life and inward-looking group activity (recreation, entertainment, religious worship, spirituality): and it excludes economic society: the profit-making enterprises of individual business firms.” (Diamond, 1999, pg 221)
Case Study "a well-defined aspect of a historical episode that the investigator selects for analysis, rather than a historical event itself". (George & Bennett, 2005, pg 18).
Cause (probability & likelihood) "a value on a variable that makes an outcome more likely; a cause increases the probability that an outcome will take place" (Mahoney, 2008, pg 4)
Citizenship "This involves both the right to be treated by fellow human beings as equal with respect to the making of collective choices and the obligation of those implementing such choices to be equally accountable and accessible to all members of the polity" (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 7) *emphasis in original
Civic Community "the density of associational life" (Putnam, 1994, pg 106)
Civil Society “all voluntary associations that exist below the level of the state, but above the family” (Berman, 2009, pg37)
Civil Society “the realm of organized social life that is open, voluntary, self-generating, at least partially self-supporting, autonomous from the state, and bound by legal order of set of shared rules …(with the exception of) parochial society: individual and family life and inward-looking group activity (recreation, entertainment, religious worship, spirituality): and it excludes economic society: the profit-making enterprises of individual business firms.” (Diamond, 1999, pg 221)
Clientalism "a dyadic transaction between traditional notables and their dependents, who are bound by ties of reciprocity" (Chandra, 2004, pg 51)
The Collective Action Problem is the problem that ―"rational, self-interested individuals, will not even act to achieve their common or group interests". (Olson,1965, Pg 2)
Comparative Historical Analysis "First, comparative historical analysis is fundamentally concerned with explanation and the identification of causal configurations that produce major outcomes of interest...Second, comparative historical researchers explicity analyze historical sequences and take seriously the unfolding of processes over time...Finally, comparative historical inquiry is distinctive because its practioners engage in systematic and contextualized comparisons of similar and contrasting cases" (Mahoney & Rueschemeyer, 2003, pgs 11-13)
Concept (Thick) exist for two reasons "First, they can not be reduced to a single indicator without losing some important part of their meaning. Development is more than just average wealth; stability is more than just the absence of coup attempts; and democracy is more than just having elections. Second, thick concepts are often multidimensional, because no aspect of the concept is reducible to any of the others" (Coppedge, 1999, pg 468)
The Collective Action Problem is the problem that ―"rational, self-interested individuals, will not even act to achieve their common or group interests". (Olson,1965, Pg 2)
Comparative Historical Analysis "First, comparative historical analysis is fundamentally concerned with explanation and the identification of causal configurations that produce major outcomes of interest...Second, comparative historical researchers explicity analyze historical sequences and take seriously the unfolding of processes over time...Finally, comparative historical inquiry is distinctive because its practioners engage in systematic and contextualized comparisons of similar and contrasting cases" (Mahoney & Rueschemeyer, 2003, pgs 11-13)
Concept (Thick) exist for two reasons "First, they can not be reduced to a single indicator without losing some important part of their meaning. Development is more than just average wealth; stability is more than just the absence of coup attempts; and democracy is more than just having elections. Second, thick concepts are often multidimensional, because no aspect of the concept is reducible to any of the others" (Coppedge, 1999, pg 468)
Conceptual Analysis "a diverse set of methods and sensibilities derived from cognitive science, ordinary language philosophy, political theory, and Bible translation that includes looking at 1) the structure of concepts, 2) how concepts get used in ordinary contexts, 3) how many specific concepts fit into a semantic field of related concepts 4) how the meaning of concepts evolve over time, and 5) issues that arise in translating" (Schaffer, 1998, pg 9)
Congruence Method when "the investigator begins with a theory and then attempts to assess its ability to explain or predict the outcome in a particular case. The theory posits a relation between variance in the independent variable and variance in the dependent variable; it can be deductive or take the form of an empirical generalization" (George & Bennett, 2005, pg 181)
Congruence procedures "explores the case looking for congruence or incongruence between values observed on the independent and dependent variable and values predicted by the test hypothesis" (Van Evera, 1997, pg 58)
Controlled Comparison "the study of two or more instances of a well-specified phenomenon that resemble each other in every respect but one". (George & Bennnett, 2005, pg 151).
Controlled Comparison "explor(ation of) paired observations in two or more cases, asking if values on the pairs are congruent or incongruent with the test theory's predictions" (Van Evera, 1998, pg 56-57)
Counterfactual conditionals "propositions that take the generic form 'If it had been the case that C (or not C), it would have been the case that E (or not E)'" (Fearon, 1991, pg 169)
Cournot Effects "the accidental intersection of unrelated chains of causation" (Pierson, 2004, pg 57)
Culture is semiotic practices, which "refers to the processes of meaning-making in which agents practices (e.g., their work habits, self-policing strategies, and leisure patterns) interact with their language and other symbolic systems" (Wedeen, 2002, 713).
-link to the article http://users.polisci.wisc.edu/schatzberg/ps657/wedeen2002.pdf
Culture “an historically transmitted pattern of means embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (Geertz, 1973, pg 89)
Congruence Method when "the investigator begins with a theory and then attempts to assess its ability to explain or predict the outcome in a particular case. The theory posits a relation between variance in the independent variable and variance in the dependent variable; it can be deductive or take the form of an empirical generalization" (George & Bennett, 2005, pg 181)
Congruence procedures "explores the case looking for congruence or incongruence between values observed on the independent and dependent variable and values predicted by the test hypothesis" (Van Evera, 1997, pg 58)
Controlled Comparison "the study of two or more instances of a well-specified phenomenon that resemble each other in every respect but one". (George & Bennnett, 2005, pg 151).
Controlled Comparison "explor(ation of) paired observations in two or more cases, asking if values on the pairs are congruent or incongruent with the test theory's predictions" (Van Evera, 1998, pg 56-57)
Counterfactual conditionals "propositions that take the generic form 'If it had been the case that C (or not C), it would have been the case that E (or not E)'" (Fearon, 1991, pg 169)
Cournot Effects "the accidental intersection of unrelated chains of causation" (Pierson, 2004, pg 57)
Culture is semiotic practices, which "refers to the processes of meaning-making in which agents practices (e.g., their work habits, self-policing strategies, and leisure patterns) interact with their language and other symbolic systems" (Wedeen, 2002, 713).
-link to the article http://users.polisci.wisc.edu/schatzberg/ps657/wedeen2002.pdf
Culture “an historically transmitted pattern of means embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (Geertz, 1973, pg 89)
Culture "is embedded in our life; it preexists as a framework of meaning; within which human deliberation and rationality operate. It is not just a privately underprovided public good, but an 'irreducibly social good'" (Varshney, 2003, pg 92)
Culture (Political) "a short-hand expression for a 'mind set' which has the effect of limiting attention to less than the full range of alternative behaviors, problems, and solutions which are logically possible" (Elkins & Simeon, 1979, pg 128) http://chenry.webhost.utexas.edu/core/Course%20Materials/ElkinsCPol1979/0.pdf
D
Definition by Analysis "defining a term by finding the genus to which the object designated by the word belongs, and then specifying the attributes which distinguish such object from all the other species of the same genus" (Sartori, 1970)
Definitional Gerrymandering "introducing a new definition every time they encounter a somewhat anamalous case" (Collier & Levitsky, 1997, pg 445)
Democracy "first, regular, free and fair elections of representatives with universal and equal suffrage, second, responsibility of the state apparatus to the elected parliament (possibly complemented by direct election of the head of the executive), and third, the freedoms of expression and association as well as the protection of individual rights arbitrary state action" (Rueschemeyer, Stephens & Stephens, 1992, pg 43)
Democracy "At a minimum, democracy requires: 1) universal adult suffrage; 2) recurring, free, competitive, and fair elections; 3)more than one serious political party; and 4) alternative sources of information" (Diamond & Morlino, 2005, pg x-xi)
Culture (Political) "a short-hand expression for a 'mind set' which has the effect of limiting attention to less than the full range of alternative behaviors, problems, and solutions which are logically possible" (Elkins & Simeon, 1979, pg 128) http://chenry.webhost.utexas.edu/core/Course%20Materials/ElkinsCPol1979/0.pdf
D
Definition by Analysis "defining a term by finding the genus to which the object designated by the word belongs, and then specifying the attributes which distinguish such object from all the other species of the same genus" (Sartori, 1970)
Definitional Gerrymandering "introducing a new definition every time they encounter a somewhat anamalous case" (Collier & Levitsky, 1997, pg 445)
Democracy "first, regular, free and fair elections of representatives with universal and equal suffrage, second, responsibility of the state apparatus to the elected parliament (possibly complemented by direct election of the head of the executive), and third, the freedoms of expression and association as well as the protection of individual rights arbitrary state action" (Rueschemeyer, Stephens & Stephens, 1992, pg 43)
Democracy "At a minimum, democracy requires: 1) universal adult suffrage; 2) recurring, free, competitive, and fair elections; 3)more than one serious political party; and 4) alternative sources of information" (Diamond & Morlino, 2005, pg x-xi)
Democracy "in a minimal sense means(s) simply a system in which the political leadership is chosen through competitive elections" (Chandra, 2004, pg 6)
Democracy "when a term has become so universally sanctified as 'democracy' now is, I begin to wonder whether it means anything, in meaning too many things" (T.S. Elliot, 1940, pgs 11-12)
Democracy "when a term has become so universally sanctified as 'democracy' now is, I begin to wonder whether it means anything, in meaning too many things" (T.S. Elliot, 1940, pgs 11-12)
Democracy (procedural minimum) a democracy with "fully contested elections with full suffrage and the absence of massive fraud, combined with effective guarantees of civil liberties, including freedom of speech, assembly, and association" (Collier & Levitsky, 1997, pg 434)
Democracy (expanded procedural minimum) a democracy with "fully contested elections with full suffrage and the absence of massive fraud, combined with effective guarantees of civil liberties, including freedom of speech, assembly, and association"... and "the criterion that elected governments must have effective power to govern" (Collier & Levitsky, 1997, pg 434)
Democracy (expanded procedural minimum) a democracy with "fully contested elections with full suffrage and the absence of massive fraud, combined with effective guarantees of civil liberties, including freedom of speech, assembly, and association"... and "the criterion that elected governments must have effective power to govern" (Collier & Levitsky, 1997, pg 434)
Types of Democracy
Consociational Democracy "political leaders of all significant segments of the plural society cooperate in a grand coalition to govern the country" (Lijphart, 1977, pg 25)
Controlled (or Restricted) Democracy “When the attributes of full contestation is missing, as when important parties are banned from electoral competition” (Collier & Levitsky, 1997, pgs 439-441)
Crude Democracy "a democracy fostered, supported, or sustained by oil wealth" (Dunning, 2008, pg 1)
Electoral Democracy "borderline cases that possess some but not all of liberal democracy's essential features " (Schedler, 1998, pgs 91-92)
Electoral Democracy "borderline cases that possess some but not all of liberal democracy's essential features " (Schedler, 1998, pgs 91-92)
Illiberal Democracy when "elections are rarely as free and fair as in the West today, but they do reflect the reality of popular participation in politics and support for those elected...the countries that lie between confirmed dictatorship and consolidated democracy (Zakaria, 1997, pg 23)
Liberal Democracy “a political system marked not only by free and fair elections, but also by the rule of law, a separation of powers, and the protection of basic liberties of speech, assembly, religion, and property” (Zakaria, 1997, pg 22)
Liberal Democracy “a political system marked not only by free and fair elections, but also by the rule of law, a separation of powers, and the protection of basic liberties of speech, assembly, religion, and property” (Zakaria, 1997, pg 22)
Modern Political Democracy "a system of governance in which rulers are held accountable for their actions in the public realm by citizens, acting indirectly for their actions in the public realm by citizens, acting indirectly through the competition and cooperation of their elected representatives" (Schmitter& Karl, 1991, pg 76)
Patronage Democracy a democracy where voters "choose between parties by conducting ethnic head-counts rather than by comparing party platforms or ideological positions. They formulate preferences across parties by counting the heads of co-ethnics across party personnel, preferring that party that provides greatest representation to ther co-ethnics" (Chandra, 2004, pg1) and "democracy in which the state monopolizes access to jobs and services, and in which elected officials have discretion in the implementation of laws allocating the jobs and services at the disposal of the state. The key aspect of a patronage-democracy is not simply the size of the state but the power of the elected officials to distribute the vast resources controlled by the state to voters on an individual basis, by exercising their discretion in the implementation of state policy" (Chandra, 2004, pg 6)
Tutelary Democracy when "Authoritarian rulers may tolerate or even promote liberalization in belief that by opening up certain spaces for individual and group action, they can relieve various pressures and obtain needed information and support without altering the structure of authority, that is, without becoming accountable to the citizenry for their actions or subjecting their claim to rule to fair and competitive elections" (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 9) AKA "Liberalized Authoritarianism" (pg 9)
Patronage Democracy a democracy where voters "choose between parties by conducting ethnic head-counts rather than by comparing party platforms or ideological positions. They formulate preferences across parties by counting the heads of co-ethnics across party personnel, preferring that party that provides greatest representation to ther co-ethnics" (Chandra, 2004, pg1) and "democracy in which the state monopolizes access to jobs and services, and in which elected officials have discretion in the implementation of laws allocating the jobs and services at the disposal of the state. The key aspect of a patronage-democracy is not simply the size of the state but the power of the elected officials to distribute the vast resources controlled by the state to voters on an individual basis, by exercising their discretion in the implementation of state policy" (Chandra, 2004, pg 6)
Tutelary Democracy when "Authoritarian rulers may tolerate or even promote liberalization in belief that by opening up certain spaces for individual and group action, they can relieve various pressures and obtain needed information and support without altering the structure of authority, that is, without becoming accountable to the citizenry for their actions or subjecting their claim to rule to fair and competitive elections" (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 9) AKA "Liberalized Authoritarianism" (pg 9)
Democratization "the process whereby the rules and procedures of citizenship are either applied to political institutions previously governed by other principles (e.g., coercive control, social tradition, expert judgment, or administrative practice), or expanded to include persons not previously enjoying such rights and obligations (e.g., nontaxpayers, illiterates, women, youth, ethnic minorities, foreign residents), or extended to cover issues and institutions not previous subject to citizen participation (e.g., state agencies, military establishments, partisan organizations, interest associations, productive enterprises, educational institutions, etc.)" (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 8).
Democratic Community is a community that is "characterized by wide rather than narrow participation in the shaping and sharing of values" (Laswell, 1951, pg 473)
Democratic Consolidation "the challenge of making new democracies secure, of extending their life expectancy beyond the short term, of making them immune against the threat of authoritarian regression, of building dams against eventual "reverse waves" (Schedler, 1998, pg 91)
* link to the article http://www.sciencespo.site.ulb.ac.be/dossiers_supports/schedler1.pdf
Democratic Consolidation "the challenge of making new democracies secure, of extending their life expectancy beyond the short term, of making them immune against the threat of authoritarian regression, of building dams against eventual "reverse waves" (Schedler, 1998, pg 91)
* link to the article http://www.sciencespo.site.ulb.ac.be/dossiers_supports/schedler1.pdf
This definition table is also from Schedler's 1998 article on pg 107
Democratic Erosion "the intermittent or gradual weakening of democracy by those elected to lead it" (Huntington, 1996, pg 9).
Development Theory is a theory that developed in the 1950s to deal with the issue of "how the economies of the colonies of Britian, France, Portugal and other European powers, colonies comprising some 28% of the world's population, might be transformed and made more productive as decolonization approached" (Leys, 1996, pg 5)
Diffusion "“the process by which a precedent increases the likelihood of its replication in other units; diffusion thus produces convergence as similarity spreads amid diversity” (Weyland 2010, pg 1156).
Semi-Diffusion "where traits diffuse through contact, but only to cultures where there is an appropriate functional basis" (Ross & Homer, 1976, pg 3).
Disconfirmation "inconsistency with the web of theories conventionally treated as the facts" (Coppedge, 1999, pg 465)
Semi-Diffusion "where traits diffuse through contact, but only to cultures where there is an appropriate functional basis" (Ross & Homer, 1976, pg 3).
Disconfirmation "inconsistency with the web of theories conventionally treated as the facts" (Coppedge, 1999, pg 465)
E
Egoist those "whose behavior is consistent with preferences in keeping with the neoclassical model" (Habyarimana et al, 2007, pg 715)
Nonegoist those "who exhibit higher levels of general altruism" (Habyarimana et at, 2007, pg 715)
Endogeneity (Institutional) “relationships among factors implying that an institution is self-enforcing, the processes this institution implies, and the implications of these processes on the institution’s self-enforceability” (Grief & Laitin, 2004) * Link to the article http://wenku.baidu.com/view/4eaa6b6ba98271fe910ef9a1.
Ethnic Group "the nominal members of an ascriptive category such as race, language, caste, tribe, or religion" (Chandra, 2004, pg 2)
Egoist those "whose behavior is consistent with preferences in keeping with the neoclassical model" (Habyarimana et al, 2007, pg 715)
Nonegoist those "who exhibit higher levels of general altruism" (Habyarimana et at, 2007, pg 715)
Endogeneity (Institutional) “relationships among factors implying that an institution is self-enforcing, the processes this institution implies, and the implications of these processes on the institution’s self-enforceability” (Grief & Laitin, 2004) * Link to the article http://wenku.baidu.com/view/4eaa6b6ba98271fe910ef9a1.
Ethnic Group "the nominal members of an ascriptive category such as race, language, caste, tribe, or religion" (Chandra, 2004, pg 2)
Ethnic Identity “an umbrella concept that ‘easily embraces groups differentiated by color, language, and religion: it covers ‘tribes’, ‘races’, ‘nationalities’ and castes”’ (Horowitz 1985, pg 53)
Ethnic Identity as “a subset of identity categories in which membership is determined by attributes associated with, or believed to be associated with, descent (described here as simply descent-based attributes” (Chandra, 2006, pg 397)
Ethnicity "is used in two different ways. In the narrower, popularly understood sense, ethnic groups are racial or linguistic groups. There is, however, a broader meaning as well. As Donald Horowitz suggests, all conflicts based on ascriptive (birth-based) group identities, real or imagined - race, language, religion, tribe or caste - can be called ethnic" (Varshney, 2003, pg 86)
Ethnic Party "a party that overtly represents itself as a champion of the cause of one particular ethnic category or set of categories to the exclusion of others, and that makes such a representation central to its strategy of mobilizing voters. The key distinguishing principles of this definition are those of ascription, exclusion, and centrality" (Chandra, 2004, pg 3)
Ethnic Party "a party that overtly represents itself as a champion of the cause of one particular ethnic category or set of categories to the exclusion of others, and that makes such a representation central to its strategy of mobilizing voters. The key distinguishing principles of this definition are those of ascription, exclusion, and centrality" (Chandra, 2004, pg 3)
Equilibrium (Structure-Induced) "an alternative (a status quo ante) that is invulnerable in the sense that no other alternative, allowed by the rules of procedure, is preferred by all the individuals, structural units, and coalitions that posses distinctive veto or voting power" (Sheplse, 1989, pg 137)
Event Sequencing when an event "may trigger a chain of causally-linked events that, once itself in motion, occurs independently of the institutions that initially triggered it. This sequence of events, while ultimately linked to a critical juncture period, may culminate in an outcome that is far removed from the original critical juncture" (Mahoney 2001)
Exit when "Some customers stop buying the firm's products or some members leave the organization" (Hirschman, 1970, pg 4)
Event Sequencing when an event "may trigger a chain of causally-linked events that, once itself in motion, occurs independently of the institutions that initially triggered it. This sequence of events, while ultimately linked to a critical juncture period, may culminate in an outcome that is far removed from the original critical juncture" (Mahoney 2001)
Exit when "Some customers stop buying the firm's products or some members leave the organization" (Hirschman, 1970, pg 4)
F
Freedom "consist of three types of rights: political, civil, and social or socioeconomic" (Diamond & Morlino, 2004, pg xxv).
G
H
High-Modernist Ideology "a strong, one might even say muscle-bound, version of the self-confidence about scientific and technical progress, the expansion of production, the growing satisfaction of human needs, the mastery of nature (including human nature), and, above all, the rational design of social order commensurate with the scientific understanding of natural laws" (Scott, 1999, pg 4)
I
Freedom "consist of three types of rights: political, civil, and social or socioeconomic" (Diamond & Morlino, 2004, pg xxv).
G
H
High-Modernist Ideology "a strong, one might even say muscle-bound, version of the self-confidence about scientific and technical progress, the expansion of production, the growing satisfaction of human needs, the mastery of nature (including human nature), and, above all, the rational design of social order commensurate with the scientific understanding of natural laws" (Scott, 1999, pg 4)
I
"Institutions are the rules of the game in a society or, more formally, are the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction. In consequence they structure incentives in human exchange, whether political, social, or economic. Institutional change shapes the way societies evolve through time and hence is the key to understanding historical change" (North, 1990, pg 3)
Institutions are “…formal and informal procedures, routines, norms and conventions embedded in the organizational structure of the polity or political economy.” (Hall & Taylor, 1996, 938)
Types of Institutions
Historical Institutionalism is an approach that tries to “understand how particular institutional arrangements in particular locations at particular times were fashioned as results of long-term historical developments. In this aspect of HI work, preferences are caused by these historical processes” (Katznelson & Weingast, 2005, 15) - Link to google book Preferences and Situations http://books.google.com/books?id=40htoLIorgoC&pg=PA1&dq=katznelson+and+weingast+preferences&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2CvlT7LXIsKg2gWY-5HaCQ&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=katznelson%20and%20weingast%20preferences&f=false
Rational Choice Institutionalism is an approach to studying institutions where “institutions have been seen primarily as sites of cooperation, in which problems of coordination and collective action can be overcome” (Katznelson & Weingast, 2005, 15)
New Institutionalism (theory of) it "CONSISTS OF TWO propositions: 1) ‘Institutions matter’: they influence norms, beliefs, and actions; therefore they shape outcomes; 2) ‘Institutions are endogenous’: their form and their functioning depend on the conditions under which they emerge and endure” (Przeworski, 2004, pg 527)
Institutional Isomorphism: “Once a set of organizations emerges as a field, a paradox arises: rational actors make their organizations increasingly similar as they try to change them…(through) three processes - coercive, mimetic and normative.” (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983, pg 147)
INUS "the so-called cause is, and is known to be, an insufficient but necessary part of a condition which isitself unnecessary but sufficient for the result" (Mackie, 1965, pg 246)
INUS "the so-called cause is, and is known to be, an insufficient but necessary part of a condition which isitself unnecessary but sufficient for the result" (Mackie, 1965, pg 246)
J
K
L
Layering (Institutional) "involves the partial renegotiation of some elements of a given set of institutions while leaving others in place" (Thelen, 2003, pg 35)
Legibility "to arrange the population in ways that simplified the classic state functions of taxation, conscription, and prevention of rebellion" (Scott, 1998, pg 2)
Liberalization "the process of making effective certain rights that protect both individuals and social groups from arbitrary or illegal acts committed by the state of third parties" (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 7)
Loyalty "the extent to which customer-members are willing to trade off the certainty of exit against the uncertainties of an improvement in the deteriorated product" (Hirschman, 1970, pg 77)
M
Macro Level of Politics "state, province, region, nation, large districts (which) are information-poor environments, in which individuals do not have personal knowledge about each other and do not have a history of repeated interactions (Chandra, 2004, pg 67)
Method of Heuristic Assumption "a crude but widely employed method of transforming potentially operative/independent variables into parameters" (Smelser, 1976, 77-78).
Micro Level of Politics"family, village, ward, neighborhood, and municipality (which) are information-rich environments, in which individuals know each other personally and have engaged in repeated interactions over a long period of time" (Chandra, 2004, pg 67)
Multi-collinearity "any situation where we can perfectly predict one explanitory variable from one or more of the remaining explanatory variables" (Kind, Keohane & Verba, 1994, pg 122)
Multiethnic Party "a party that also makes an appeal related to ethnicity central to its mobilizing strategy but that assumes a position of neutrality or equidistance toward all relevant categories on the salient dimension(s) of ethnicity" (Chandra, 2004, pg 3)
N
Nation "Two men are of the same nation if and only if they share the same culture, where culture in turn means a system of ideas and signs and associations and ways of behaving and communicating. Two men are of the same nation if and only if they recognize each other as belonging to the same nation. In other words, nations make the man; nations are the artifacts of men's convictions and loyalties and solidarities. A mere category of persons (say, occupants of a given territory, or speakers of a given language, for example) becomes a nation if and when the members of the category firmly recognize certain mutual rights and duties to each other in virtue of their shared membership of it. It is their recognition of each other as fellows of this kind which turns them into a nation, and not the other shared attributes, whatever they might be, which separate that category from non- members." (Gellner, 1983, pg 6-7)
M
Macro Level of Politics "state, province, region, nation, large districts (which) are information-poor environments, in which individuals do not have personal knowledge about each other and do not have a history of repeated interactions (Chandra, 2004, pg 67)
Method of Heuristic Assumption "a crude but widely employed method of transforming potentially operative/independent variables into parameters" (Smelser, 1976, 77-78).
Micro Level of Politics"family, village, ward, neighborhood, and municipality (which) are information-rich environments, in which individuals know each other personally and have engaged in repeated interactions over a long period of time" (Chandra, 2004, pg 67)
Mill’s Direct Method of Difference “If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have ever circumstance in common save one, that one occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which along the two instances differ is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensible part of the cause, of the phenomenon” (Mill, 1872, pg 256)
Mill’s Indirect Method of Difference “If two or more instances in which the phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance in common, while two or more instances in which it does not occur have nothing in common save the absence of that circumstance, the circumstance in which alone the two sets of instances differ is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause, of the phenomenon” (Mill, 1872, pg 259)
Mill’s Method of Agreement “If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which alone all the instances agree is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon” (Mill, 1872 pg 256)
Monopsony "a single buyer, the buyer can strongly influence the price at which economic transactions will take place" (Bates, 2005, pg 12)Multi-collinearity "any situation where we can perfectly predict one explanitory variable from one or more of the remaining explanatory variables" (Kind, Keohane & Verba, 1994, pg 122)
Multiethnic Party "a party that also makes an appeal related to ethnicity central to its mobilizing strategy but that assumes a position of neutrality or equidistance toward all relevant categories on the salient dimension(s) of ethnicity" (Chandra, 2004, pg 3)
N
Nation "Two men are of the same nation if and only if they share the same culture, where culture in turn means a system of ideas and signs and associations and ways of behaving and communicating. Two men are of the same nation if and only if they recognize each other as belonging to the same nation. In other words, nations make the man; nations are the artifacts of men's convictions and loyalties and solidarities. A mere category of persons (say, occupants of a given territory, or speakers of a given language, for example) becomes a nation if and when the members of the category firmly recognize certain mutual rights and duties to each other in virtue of their shared membership of it. It is their recognition of each other as fellows of this kind which turns them into a nation, and not the other shared attributes, whatever they might be, which separate that category from non- members." (Gellner, 1983, pg 6-7)
"(N)ation = state = people, and especially sovereign people, undoubtedly linked nation to territory, since structure and definition of states were now essentially territorial" (Hobsbawm, 1990, pg 19)
Nation "it is an imagined political community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign" (Anderson, 1991, pg 6)
Natural Resource Dependency "the share of natural resource exports as a percentage of GPD" (Herb, 2005, pg 298) http://pomed.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Herb_No-Representation-without-Taxation.pdf
Nested Analysis a research design where "statistical analyses can guide case selection for in-depth research, provide direction for more focused case studies and comparisons, and be used to provide additional tests of hypotheses generated from small-N research. Small-N analyses can be used to assess the plausibility of observed statistical relationships between variables, to generate theoretical insights from outlier and other cases, and to develop better measurement strategies" (Lieberman, 2005, pg 2005). – Link to the article http://www.princeton.edu/~esl/Lieberman%20Nested.pdf
Nation "it is an imagined political community - and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign" (Anderson, 1991, pg 6)
Natural Resource Dependency "the share of natural resource exports as a percentage of GPD" (Herb, 2005, pg 298) http://pomed.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Herb_No-Representation-without-Taxation.pdf
Nested Analysis a research design where "statistical analyses can guide case selection for in-depth research, provide direction for more focused case studies and comparisons, and be used to provide additional tests of hypotheses generated from small-N research. Small-N analyses can be used to assess the plausibility of observed statistical relationships between variables, to generate theoretical insights from outlier and other cases, and to develop better measurement strategies" (Lieberman, 2005, pg 2005). – Link to the article http://www.princeton.edu/~esl/Lieberman%20Nested.pdf
O
Observation "one measure on one unit for one dependent variable and includes informatino on the values of the explanatory variable" (King, Keohane & Verba, 1994, pg 117)
Operationalization "the fine-tuning and specificaiton of the theory that permits case-specific of the theory that permits case-specific rather than general probabilistic prediction of outcomes for each of the cases examined" (George & Bennett, 2005 pg 203)
P
"'paradigms.' These I take to be universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners." (Kuhn 1970, pg viii) & "To be accepted as a paradigm, a theory must seem better than its competitors, but it need not, and in fact never does explain all the facts with which it can be confronted." (pg 17 &18)
* link to the book as a pdf http://insitu.lri.fr/~mbl/Stanford/CS477/papers/Kuhn-SSR-2ndEd.pdf
Path dependence "refers to dynamic processes involving positive feedback, which generate multiple possible outcomes depending on the particular sequence in which events unfold" (Pierson, 2004, pg 20)
Observation "one measure on one unit for one dependent variable and includes informatino on the values of the explanatory variable" (King, Keohane & Verba, 1994, pg 117)
Operationalization "the fine-tuning and specificaiton of the theory that permits case-specific of the theory that permits case-specific rather than general probabilistic prediction of outcomes for each of the cases examined" (George & Bennett, 2005 pg 203)
P
"'paradigms.' These I take to be universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners." (Kuhn 1970, pg viii) & "To be accepted as a paradigm, a theory must seem better than its competitors, but it need not, and in fact never does explain all the facts with which it can be confronted." (pg 17 &18)
* link to the book as a pdf http://insitu.lri.fr/~mbl/Stanford/CS477/papers/Kuhn-SSR-2ndEd.pdf
Path dependence "refers to dynamic processes involving positive feedback, which generate multiple possible outcomes depending on the particular sequence in which events unfold" (Pierson, 2004, pg 20)
“Path dependence has to mean, if it is to mean anything, that once a country or region has started down a track, the costs of reversal are very high. There will be other choice points, but the entrenchments of certain institutional arrangements obstruct an easy reversal of the initial choice" (Levi, 1997, pg 28)
Path dependence is when "one damn thing follows another" (David, 1985, pg 332)
Patronage Politics "form of rent seeking and corruption in which the returns to politicians take the form of votes rather than bribes" (Chandra, 2004, pg 51)
Patronage Politics "form of rent seeking and corruption in which the returns to politicians take the form of votes rather than bribes" (Chandra, 2004, pg 51)
Political Cluster " community of region in which there is a long history of political radicalism, political violence, or other characteristic" (King, Keohane & Verba, 1994, pg 149)
Polyarchy "may be thought of as a relatively (but incompletely) democratized regimes, or, to put it another way, polyarchies are regimes that have been substantially popularized and liberalized, that is highly inclusive and extensively open to public contestation" (Dahl, 1971, pg 8)
Polyarchy "may be thought of as a relatively (but incompletely) democratized regimes, or, to put it another way, polyarchies are regimes that have been substantially popularized and liberalized, that is highly inclusive and extensively open to public contestation" (Dahl, 1971, pg 8)
Population-Oriented Researchers "see to identify typical causal effects in overall populations. They may sometime investigate whether a particular case follows a general causal pattern, but their main interest is to say something abut the larger population pattern" (Mahoney, 2008, pg 2)
Positive Feedback Loop when "Initial steps in a particular direction may encourage further movement along the same path. Over time, 'roads not chosen' may become increasingly distant, increasingly unreachable alternatives" (Pierson, 2004, pg 64)
Process Tracing "a procedure for identifying steps in a causal process leading to the outcome of a given dependent variable of a particular case in a particular historical context" (George & Bennett, 2005, 176)
Q
R
R
Rationality "In its standard economic usage, the term refers to instrumental rationality, and it has two meanings. First, it means consistency of choice: if I prefer A over B and B over C, then I must prefer A over C. The second meaning is identical with self-interest. If costs of an action outweigh benefits, self-interest will not be served: hence cost-benefit calculus accompanies analysis based on self-interest" (Varshney, 2003, pg 86-87)
Rationality (Instrumental) "a strict cost-benefit calculus with respect to goals, necessitating the abandonment or adjustment of goals if the costs of realizing them are too high" (Varshney, 2003, pg 86)
Rationality (thin) "they (agents/actors) efficiently employ the means available to pursue their ends" (Ferejon, 1991 pg 282)
Rationality (thick) "the analyst posits not only rationality but some additional description of agent preferences and beliefs" (Ferejon, 1991, pg 282)
Rationality (Instrumental) "a strict cost-benefit calculus with respect to goals, necessitating the abandonment or adjustment of goals if the costs of realizing them are too high" (Varshney, 2003, pg 86)
Rationality (thin) "they (agents/actors) efficiently employ the means available to pursue their ends" (Ferejon, 1991 pg 282)
Rationality (thick) "the analyst posits not only rationality but some additional description of agent preferences and beliefs" (Ferejon, 1991, pg 282)
Rentierism "rent revenues as a percentage of total government revenues
Rentierism = Rent revenues " (Herb, 2005, pg 303)
All other revenues + Rent Revenues
http://pomed.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Herb_No-Representation-without-Taxation.pdf
Rentierism = Rent revenues " (Herb, 2005, pg 303)
All other revenues + Rent Revenues
http://pomed.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Herb_No-Representation-without-Taxation.pdf
Research Design "is a plan that shows, through a discussion of our model and data, how we expect to use our evidence to make inferences" (King, Keohane & Verba, 1994, pg 118)
'Most Likely' Research Design is when " a scholar exmaines in depth a single case study in which a hypothesized causal relationship is believed 'most likely' to be found; if it is present, the hypothesis is pronounced 'plausible' and if not, it is deemed 'falsified'." (Ross, 2004, pg 37)
"Rule of Law means that all citizens are equal before the law, and that the laws themselves are clear, publicly known, universal, stable, non-retroacvtive, and fairly and consistently applied to all citizens by an independent judiciary" (Diamond & Morlino, 2005, pg xiv)
'Most Likely' Research Design is when " a scholar exmaines in depth a single case study in which a hypothesized causal relationship is believed 'most likely' to be found; if it is present, the hypothesis is pronounced 'plausible' and if not, it is deemed 'falsified'." (Ross, 2004, pg 37)
"Rule of Law means that all citizens are equal before the law, and that the laws themselves are clear, publicly known, universal, stable, non-retroacvtive, and fairly and consistently applied to all citizens by an independent judiciary" (Diamond & Morlino, 2005, pg xiv)
S
The Scissors Problem "the better our theories, the more things we know 'had to occur' as they did, and thus the fewer counterfactuals we can legitimately assert" (Fearon, 1991, pg 192)
–Link to the article http://psfaculty.ucdavis.edu/bsjjones/fearon.pdf
The State "a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence" ~Max Weber
The State "an organization with the comparative advantage in violence, extending over a geographic area whose boundaries are determined by its power to tax constituents" (North, 1981, 21)
The State "a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence" ~Max Weber
The State "an organization with the comparative advantage in violence, extending over a geographic area whose boundaries are determined by its power to tax constituents" (North, 1981, 21)
“(The S)tate is an expression… of social-class relations, and these relations imply domination of one group by another. Hence, the State is both a product of relations of domination and their shaper.” (Carnoy, 1984, pg. 250)
Structural-Functionalist Analysis "is concerned with the connection between norms, structures, and behaviors, the first in terms of values and interests, the second in terms of roles, role networks, and classes, and the third in terms of motivation and perception. An equilibrium model, its political focus is on the stability of complementary and mutually reinforcing relations between each of the dimensions. The there together constitute a system. Change in one will effec alterations in the others" (Apter & Rosenberg, 1994, pg 10)
SUIN "a sufficient but unnecessary part of a factor that is insuffiencent but necessary for an outcome" (Mahoney, 2008, pg 8)
Structural-Functionalist Analysis "is concerned with the connection between norms, structures, and behaviors, the first in terms of values and interests, the second in terms of roles, role networks, and classes, and the third in terms of motivation and perception. An equilibrium model, its political focus is on the stability of complementary and mutually reinforcing relations between each of the dimensions. The there together constitute a system. Change in one will effec alterations in the others" (Apter & Rosenberg, 1994, pg 10)
SUIN "a sufficient but unnecessary part of a factor that is insuffiencent but necessary for an outcome" (Mahoney, 2008, pg 8)
T
Theory (Thick) "richly specified, complex models that are sensitive to variations by time and place" (Coppedge, 1999, pg 471)
Transition "the interval between one political regime and another... Transitions are delimited, on the one side, by the launching of the process of dissolution of an authoritarian regime and, on the other, by the installation of some form of democracy, the return of some form of authoritarian rule, or the emergence of a revolutionary alternative” (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 6) *Although it is not part of their definition, there are a few addendums that O&S make that should be kept in mind "It is characteristic of the transition that during it the rules of the political game are not defined" (pg 6) "The typical sign that the transition has begun comes when these authoritarian incumbents, for whatever reason, begin to modify their own rules in the direction of providing more secure guarantees for the rights of individuals and groups" (pg 6)
U
Transition "the interval between one political regime and another... Transitions are delimited, on the one side, by the launching of the process of dissolution of an authoritarian regime and, on the other, by the installation of some form of democracy, the return of some form of authoritarian rule, or the emergence of a revolutionary alternative” (O'Donnell & Schmitter, 1986, pg 6) *Although it is not part of their definition, there are a few addendums that O&S make that should be kept in mind "It is characteristic of the transition that during it the rules of the political game are not defined" (pg 6) "The typical sign that the transition has begun comes when these authoritarian incumbents, for whatever reason, begin to modify their own rules in the direction of providing more secure guarantees for the rights of individuals and groups" (pg 6)
U
Unit Homogeneity "two units are homogenous when the expected values of the dependent variables from each unit are the same when our explanatory variables takes on a particular value" (King, Keohane & Verba, 1994, 91)
V
V
Independent Variable (negative definition) – “Quite commonly, researchers in comparative politics and international relations assert that their dependent variable is X, where X is some particular event or phenomenon. X might be the failure of the U.S. to play the role of international hegemon between the world wars, a change in the nuclear proliferation regime, the dominance of the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, or the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe. Analysts explaining such events need to understand that none of these are variables. They become values of variables if alternative, counterfactual scenarios are identified or if actual cases, some of which differ in outcome, are added to the analysis”
Voice is when "The firms customers or the organization's members express their dissatisfaction directly to management or to some other authority to which management is subordinate or through general protest addressed to anyone who cares to listen" (Hirschman, 1970, pg 4)
W
X
W
X
Y
Z
Z
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